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These are now being superseded by even newer digital technologies. Finally, in 1987, Ronald Eastman created IDRISI, a sophisticated, raster-based GIS program. In 1982, Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) released Arc/INFO, the first commercial GIS program, and, in the same year, the US Army released Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS) as a tool for environmental research and the management of military lands. The modern phase began with the introduction in the 1980s of desktop map systems.
Ortelius walking tracks professional#
As mapping developed in the second, specialist cartographers and engravers translated authors’ data into maps printed in books, governmental reports, and professional journals. In the first phase, the old skills of the scribes creating hand-drawn pages was lost with their sometimes-fanciful illustrations (“There be dragons, there!”). Here, the broad historical sweep is first reviewed and then focused on the history of mapping. That phase is now extended, I argue, since the ambit of an interactive medium, now Web 3.0, and progressively rigorous spatial analyses of a range of health phenomena from infectious diseases to the effect of water contamination on specific populations. The third and modern phase is marked by the digital revolution permitting the wholesale collection, storage, and distribution of data analyzed and presented through geographic information systems (GIS) mapping programs.
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In the nineteenth century, increasingly comprehensive official data collection coupled with the mid-nineteenth-century use of basic statistics set mapping as a critical medium of analysis. 10 The first, in the eighteenth century, was a kind of pre-history with the introduction of mapping as a tool of the state, setting boundaries and serving governments and mariners. Within this broad frame, Edney describes three general periods of cartographic evolution. Understanding the longue durée not only situates the present in the past but makes clearer the possible direction of the effect of future innovations. Third, those changes permit new perspectives to emerge and new ideas to be introduced. In the second, as a technology matures, new classes of experts are created as audiences receptive to their work are created. In the first, high costs and the necessity of specialized knowledge limit publication to official audiences. In all these histories, three distinct stages are typically recorded. 8 Early photographers aped the style and subjects of a painterly world until a new generation sought “the reforming of any bit of reality” 9 through the new idea of documentary photography.
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One sees this, for example, in the history of photography as the age of the daguerreotype, introduced in the 1840s, gave way to that of more sophisticated and eventually hand-held cameras of the 1920s and 1930s. 7Īs new technologies emerge, content is at first beholden to older styles and aesthetics until new forms and perspectives made possible by the evolving technologies are introduced. None of this would have been possible, of course, without an evolving system of international mails capable of carrying books, journals, and newssheets around the world. 6 That mapping was enabled by new systems of bureaucratic data collection-censuses, enumerations, disease-related records-that served as the material for this work. 4 Mapping as a tool of medical science proliferated in the 1830s in various studies, 5 but especially that of pandemic cholera. That resulted in the first use of evidentiary maps in disease studies in official reports and professional journals. 1 With it “huge swaths of territory were subjected to systematic surveys by newly self-conscious states.” 2 Lost in the new, however, was the skill of traditional scribes and wood-block artisans who had labored to create incunabula, hand-illustrated texts, page by page.Īt the end of the eighteenth century, newer, faster print technologies enabled the increasingly low-cost production of books and journals, giving rise to the then-radical idea of the public professional writer, 3 and focused public researcher. The result of the sixteenth century print revolution enabled by moveable type, for example, permitted relatively low-cost production of the first atlas, Ortelius’s, Theatrum Orbus Terrarum (seven guilders in black and white or 16 guilders for a hand-colored version). In the midst of these transformations, traditional, skilled crafts become superannuated skills. The result encourages new audiences and new forms of presentation. In communications, for example, new, simpler modes of production decrease costs while increasing public access to previously privileged data. Technological evolution follows a complex but predictable pattern of change.